Wu, J. H. ; Chen, A. P. ; Qin, M. ; Huang, R. ; Zhang, G. ; Xue, B. ; Wei, J. W. ; Li, Y. ; Cao, Y. ; Wang, W . Hierarchical construction of a mechanically stable peptide-graphene oxide hybrid hydrogel for drug delivery and pulsatile triggered release in vivo . Nanoscale , 2015 , 7 ( 5 ), 1655 – 1660 .

Qu, J. ; Liang, Y. P. ; Shi, M. T. ; Guo, B. L. ; Gao, Y. Z. ; Yin, Z. H . Biocompatible conductive hydrogels based on dextran and aniline trimer as electro-responsive drug delivery system for localized drug release . Int. J. Biol. Macromol. , 2019 , 140 , 255 – 264 .

Dreiss, C. A . Hydrogel design strategies for drug delivery . Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. , 2020 , 48 , 1 – 17 .

Yeo, Y. ; Geng, W. L. ; Ito, T. ; Kohane, D. S. ; Burdick, J. A. ; Radisic, M . Photocrosslinkable hydrogel for myocyte cell culture and injection . J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater. , 2007 , 81B ( 2 ), 312 – 322 .

Xue, B. ; Tang, D. H. ; Wu, X. ; Xu, Z. Y. ; Gu, J. ; Han, Y. Y. ; Zhu, Z. S. ; Qin, M. ; Zou, X. P. ; Wang, W. ; Cao, Y . Engineering hydrogels with homogeneous mechanical properties for controlling stem cell lineage specification . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 2021 , 118 ( 37 ), e2110961118 .

Caliari, S. R. ; Burdick, J. A . A practical guide to hydrogels for cell culture . Nat. Methods , 2016 , 13 ( 5 ), 405 – 414 .

Yu, X. D. ; Li, X. ; Kan, L. ; Pan, P. ; Wang, X. ; Liu, W. T. ; Zhang, J. S . Double network microcrystalline cellulose hydrogels with high mechanical strength and biocompatibility for cartilage tissue engineering scaffold . Int. J. Biol. Macromol. , 2023 , 238 , 124113 .

Tang, J. ; Mura, C. ; Lampe, K. J . Stimuli-responsive, pentapeptide, nanofiber hydrogel for tissue engineering . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2019 , 141 ( 12 ), 4886 – 4899 .

Griffith, L. G. ; Naughton, G . Tissue engineering: current challenges and expanding opportunities . Science , 2002 , 295 ( 5557 ), 1009 – 1014 .

Mandal, B. B. ; Kundu, S. C . Cell proliferation and migration in silk fibroin 3D scaffolds . Biomaterials , 2009 , 30 ( 15 ), 2956 – 2965 .

Lien, S. M. ; Ko, L. Y. ; Huang, T. J . Effect of pore size on ECM secretion and cell growth in gelatin scaffold for articular cartilage tissue engineering . Acta Biomater. , 2009 , 5 ( 2 ), 670 – 679 .

Amsden, B. G . Hydrogel mesh size and its impact on predictions of mathematical models of the solute diffusion coefficient . Macromolecules , 2022 , 55 ( 18 ), 8399 – 8408 .

Griffon, D. J. ; Sedighi, M. R. ; Schaeffer, D. V. ; Eurell, J. A. ; Johnson, A. L . Chitosan scaffolds: interconnective pore size and cartilage engineering . Acta Biomater. , 2006 , 2 ( 3 ), 313 – 320 .

Foudazi, R. ; Zowada, R. ; Manas-Zloczower, I. ; Feke, D. L . Porous hydrogels: present challenges and future opportunities . Langmuir , 2023 , 39 ( 6 ), 2092 – 2111 .

Chen, D. ; Yang, B. R. ; Yang, C. ; Wu, J. J. ; Zhao, Q . Macroporous hydrogels prepared by ice templating: developments and challenges . Chin. J. Chem. , 2023 , 41 ( 22 ), 3082 – 3096 .

Bao, M. ; Xie, J. ; Piruska, A. ; Huck, W. T. S . 3D microniches reveal the importance of cell size and shape . Nat. Commun. , 2017 , 8 ( 1 ), 1962 .

Janoušková, O. ; Přádný, M. ; Vetrík, M. ; Chylíková Krumbholcová, E. ; Michálek, J. ; Dušková Smrčková, M . Biomimetic modification of dual porosity poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) hydrogel scaffolds: porosity and stem cell growth evaluation . Biomed. Mater. , 2019 , 14 ( 5 ), 055004 .

Koch, B. ; Sanchez, S. ; Schmidt, C. K. ; Swiersy, A. ; Jackson, S. P. ; Schmidt, O. G . Confinement and deformation of single cells and their nuclei inside size-adapted microtubes . Adv. Healthc. Mater. , 2014 , 3 ( 11 ), 1753 – 1758 .

Streichan, S. J. ; Hoerner, C. R. ; Schneidt, T. ; Holzer, D. ; Hufnagel, L . Spatial constraints control cell proliferation in tissues . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. , 2014 , 111 ( 15 ), 5586 – 5591 .

Doolin, M. T. ; Stroka, K. M . Physical confinement alters cytoskeletal contributions towards human mesenchymal stem cell migration . Cytoskeleton , 2018 , 75 ( 3 ), 103 – 117 .

Ling, Y. B. ; Rubin, J. ; Deng, Y. T. ; Huang, C. ; Demirci, U. ; Karp, J. M. ; Khademhosseini, A . A cell-laden microfluidic hydrogel . Lab Chip , 2007 , 7 ( 6 ), 756 – 762 .

Brigham, M. D. ; Bick, A. ; Lo, E. ; Bendali, A. ; Burdick, J. A. ; Khademhosseini, A . Mechanically robust and bioadhesive collagen and photocrosslinkable hyaluronic acid semi-interpenetrating networks . Tissue Eng. Part A , 2009 , 15 ( 7 ), 1645 – 1653 .

Fu, J. Y. ; Wiraja, C. ; Muhammad, H. B. ; Xu, C. J. ; Wang, D. A . Improvement of endothelial progenitor outgrowth cell (EPOC)-mediated vascularization in gelatin-based hydrogels through pore size manipulation . Acta Biomater. , 2017 , 58 , 225 – 237 .

Han, Y. ; Lian, M. F. ; Wu, Q. ; Qiao, Z. G. ; Sun, B. B. ; Dai, K. R . Effect of pore size on cell behavior using melt electrowritten scaffolds . Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. , 2021 , 9 , 629270 .

Lu, D. H. ; Zeng, Z. W. ; Geng, Z. J. ; Guo, C. P. ; Pei, D. T. ; Zhang, J. ; Yu, S . Macroporous methacrylated hyaluronic acid hydrogel with different pore sizes for in vitro and in vivo evaluation of vascularization . Biomed. Mater. , 2022 , 17 ( 2 ), 025006 .

Santos, P. A. ; Rocha, C. S. ; Baptista, M. S . Adhesion and proliferation of HeLa and fibroblast cells on chemically-modified gold surfaces . Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces , 2014 , 123 , 429 – 438 .

Ueno, M. ; Lo, C. W. ; Barati, D. ; Conrad, B. ; Lin, T. ; Kohno, Y. ; Utsunomiya, T. ; Zhang, N. ; Maruyama, M. ; Rhee, C. ; Huang, E. J. ; Romero-Lopez, M. ; Tong, X. M. ; Yao, Z. Y. ; Zwingenberger, S. ; Yang, F. ; Goodman, S. B . Interleukin-4 overexpressing mesenchymal stem cells within gelatin-based microribbon hydrogels enhance bone healing in a murine long bone critical-size defect model . J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A , 2020 , 108 ( 11 ), 2240 – 2250 .

Surmeneva, M. A. ; Kleinhans, C. ; Vacun, G. ; Kluger, P. J. ; Schönhaar, V. ; Müller, M. ; Hein, S. B. ; Wittmar, A. ; Ulbricht, M. ; Prymak, O. ; Oehr, C. ; Surmenev, R. A . Nano-hydroxyapatite-coated metal-ceramic composite of iron-tricalcium phosphate: improving the surface wettability, adhesion and proliferation of mesenchymal stem cells in vitro . Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces , 2015 , 135 , 386 – 393 .

Annabi, N. ; Nichol, J. W. ; Zhong, X. ; Ji, C. D. ; Koshy, S. ; Khademhosseini, A. ; Dehghani, F . Controlling the porosity and microarchitecture of hydrogels for tissue engineering . Tissue Eng. Part B Rev. , 2010 , 16 ( 4 ), 371 – 383 .

Imaninezhad, M. ; Hill, L. ; Kolar, G. ; Vogt, K. ; Zustiak, S. P . Templated macroporous polyethylene glycol hydrogels for spheroid and aggregate cell culture . Bioconjugate Chem. , 2019 , 30 ( 1 ), 34 – 46 .

Coogan, K. R. ; Stone, P. T. ; Sempertegui, N. D. ; Rao, S. S . Fabrication of micro-porous hyaluronic acid hydrogels through salt leaching . Eur. Polym. J. , 2020 , 135 , 109870 .

Burger, D. ; Beaumont, M. ; Rosenau, T. ; Tamada, Y. ; Burger, D. ; Beaumont, M. ; Rosenau, T. ; Tamada, Y . Porous silk fibroin/cellulose hydrogels for bone tissue engineering via a novel combined process based on sequential regeneration and porogen leaching . Molecules , 2020 , 25 ( 21 ), 5097 .

Haung, S. M. ; Lin, Y. T. ; Liu, S. M. ; Chen, J. C. ; Chen, W. C . In vitro evaluation of a composite gelatin-hyaluronic acid-alginate porous scaffold with different pore distributions for cartilage regeneration . Gels , 2021 , 7 ( 4 ), 165 .

Dušková-Smrčková, M. ; Zavřel, J. ; Bartoš, M. ; Kaberova, Z. ; Filová, E. ; Zárubová, J. ; Šlouf, M. ; Michálek, J. ; Vampola, T. ; Kubies, D . Communicating macropores in PHEMA-based hydrogels for cell seeding: probabilistic open pore simulation and direct micro-CT proof . Mater. Des. , 2021 , 198 , 109312 .

Dragan, E. S. ; Dinu, M. V . Advances in porous chitosan-based composite hydrogels: synthesis and applications . React. Funct. Polym. , 2020 , 146 , 104372 .

Huebsch, N. ; Lippens, E. ; Lee, K. ; Mehta, M. ; Koshy, S. T. ; Darnell, M. C. ; Desai, R. M. ; Madl, C. M. ; Xu, M. ; Zhao, X. H. ; Chaudhuri, O. ; Verbeke, C. ; Kim, W. S. ; Alim, K. ; Mammoto, A. ; Ingber, D. E. ; Duda, G. N. ; Mooney, D. J . Matrix elasticity of void-forming hydrogels controls transplanted-stem-cell-mediated bone formation . Nat. Mater. , 2015 , 14 ( 12 ), 1269 – 1277 .

Jiang, Z. L. ; Lin, F. Y. ; Jiang, K. ; Nguyen, H. ; Chang, C. Y. ; Lin, C. C . Dissolvable microgel-templated macroporous hydrogels for controlled cell assembly . Biomater. Adv. , 2022 , 134 , 112712 .

Keskar, V. ; Marion, N. W. ; Mao, J. J. ; Gemeinhart, R. A . In vitro evaluation of macroporous hydrogels to facilitate stem cell infiltration, growth, and mineralization . Tissue Eng. Part A , 2009 , 15 ( 7 ), 1695 – 1707 .

Ali Poursamar, S. ; Hatami, J. ; Lehner, A. N. ; da Silva, C. L. ; Ferreira, F. C. ; Antunes, A. P. M . Gelatin porous scaffolds fabricated using a modified gas foaming technique: characterisation and cytotoxicity assessment . Mater. Sci. Eng. C , 2015 , 48 , 63 – 70 .

Catanzano, O. ; Soriente, A. ; La Gatta, A. ; Cammarota, M. ; Ricci, G. ; Fasolino, I. ; Schiraldi, C. ; Ambrosio, L. ; Malinconico, M. ; Laurienzo, P. ; Raucci, M. G. ; Gomez d’Ayala, G . Macroporous alginate foams crosslinked with strontium for bone tissue engineering . Carbohydr. Polym. , 2018 , 202 , 72 – 83 .

Drenckhan, W. ; Saint-Jalmes, A . The science of foaming . Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. , 2015 , 222 , 228 – 259 .

Pinthong, T. ; Yooyod, M. ; Daengmankhong, J. ; Tuancharoensri, N. ; Mahasaranon, S. ; Viyoch, J. ; Jongjitwimol, J. ; Ross, S. ; Ross, G. M . Development of natural active agent-containing porous hydrogel sheets with high water content for wound dressings . Gels , 2023 , 9 ( 6 ), 459 .

Zowada, R. ; Foudazi, R . Polyfoam: Foam-templated microcellular polymers . Langmuir , 2020 , 36 ( 27 ), 7868 – 7878 .

Dehli, F. ; Rebers, L. ; Stubenrauch, C. ; Southan, A . Highly ordered gelatin methacryloyl hydrogel foams with tunable pore size . Biomacromolecules , 2019 , 20 ( 7 ), 2666 – 2674 .

Ben Djemaa, I. ; Auguste, S. ; Drenckhan-Andreatta, W. ; Andrieux, S . Hydrogel foams from liquid foam templates: properties and optimisation . Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. , 2021 , 294 , 102478 .

Brougham, C. M. ; Levingstone, T. J. ; Shen, N. ; Cooney, G. M. ; Jockenhoevel, S. ; Flanagan, T. C. ; O’Brien, F. J . Freeze-drying as a novel biofabrication method for achieving a controlled microarchitecture within large, complex natural biomaterial scaffolds . Adv. Healthc. Mater. , 2017 , 6 ( 21 ), 1700598 .

Wu, X. M. ; Black, L. ; Santacana-Laffitte, G. ; Patrick, C. W., Jr . Preparation and assessment of glutaraldehyde-crosslinked collagen–chitosan hydrogels for adipose tissue engineering . J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A , 2007 , 81A ( 1 ), 59 – 65 .

Memic, A. ; Colombani, T. ; Eggermont, L. J. ; Rezaeeyazdi, M. ; Steingold, J. ; Rogers, Z. J. ; Navare, K. J. ; Mohammed, H. S. ; Bencherif, S. A . Latest advances in cryogel technology for biomedical applications . Adv. Ther. , 2019 , 2 ( 4 ), 1800114 .

Chen, D. ; Zhang, Y. ; Ni, C. J. ; Ma, C. ; Yin, J. ; Bai, H. ; Luo, Y. W. ; Huang, F. H. ; Xie, T. ; Zhao, Q . Drilling by light: ice-templated photo-patterning enabled by a dynamically crosslinked hydrogel . Mater. Horiz. , 2019 , 6 ( 5 ), 1013 – 1019 .

Rezaeeyazdi, M. ; Colombani, T. ; Memic, A. ; Bencherif, S. A . Injectable hyaluronic acid- co -gelatin cryogels for tissue-engineering applications . Materials , 2018 , 11 ( 8 ), 1374 .

Dong, X. Y. ; Guo, X. ; Liu, Q. Y. ; Zhao, Y. J. ; Qi, H. B. ; Zhai, W . Strong and tough conductive organo-hydrogels via freeze-casting assisted solution substitution . Adv. Funct. Mater. , 2022 , 32 ( 31 ), 2203610 .

Hori, A. ; Watabe, Y. ; Yamada, M. ; Yajima, Y. ; Utoh, R. ; Seki, M . One-step formation of microporous hydrogel sponges encapsulating living cells by utilizing bicontinuous dispersion of aqueous polymer solutions . ACS Appl. Bio Mater. , 2019 , 2 ( 5 ), 2237 – 2245 .

Broguiere, N. ; Husch, A. ; Palazzolo, G. ; Bradke, F. ; Madduri, S. ; Zenobi-Wong, M . Macroporous hydrogels derived from aqueous dynamic phase separation . Biomaterials , 2019 , 200 , 56 – 65 .

Guo, Y. Z. ; Han, Y. ; Cao, Y. Y. ; Chen, Y. P. ; Xie, J. W. ; Ding, H. C. ; Liang, S. F. ; Liu, X. ; Sun, W. J. ; Tang, J. B. ; Shao, S. Q. ; Xiang, J. J. ; Shen, Y. Q . Facile fabrication of tough super macroporous hydrogel via enhanced phase separation . Adv. Funct. Mater. , 2025 , 35 ( 2 ), 2412412 .

Xu, Z. Y. ; Wang, W. ; Cao, Y. ; Xue, B . Liquid-liquid phase separation: fundamental physical principles, biological implications, and applications in supramolecular materials engineering . Supramol. Mater. , 2023 , 2 , 100049 .

Agrawal, A. ; Hussain, C. M . 3D-printed hydrogel for diverse applications: a review . Gels , 2023 , 9 ( 12 ), 960 .

Murphy, S. V. ; Atala, A . 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs . Nat. Biotechnol. , 2014 , 32 ( 8 ), 773 – 785 .

Li, H. J. ; Tan, C. ; Li, L . Review of 3D printable hydrogels and constructs . Mater. Des. , 2018 , 159 , 20 – 38 .

Derakhshanfar, S. ; Mbeleck, R. ; Xu, K. G. ; Zhang, X. Y. ; Zhong, W. ; Xing, M . 3D bioprinting for biomedical devices and tissue engineering: a review of recent trends and advances . Bioact. Mater. , 2018 , 3 ( 2 ), 144 – 156 .

Touya, N. ; Devun, M. ; Handschin, C. ; Casenave, S. ; Ahmed Omar, N. ; Gaubert, A. ; Dusserre, N. ; De Oliveira, H. ; Kérourédan, O. ; Devillard, R . In vitro and in vivo characterization of a novel tricalcium silicate-based ink for bone regeneration using laser-assisted bioprinting . Biofabrication , 2022 , 14 ( 2 ), 024104 .

Ahmadi Soufivand, A. ; Faber, J. ; Hinrichsen, J. ; Budday, S . Multilayer 3D bioprinting and complex mechanical properties of alginate-gelatin mesostructures . Sci. Rep. , 2023 , 13 , 11253 .

Kang, H. W. ; Lee, S. J. ; Ko, I. K. ; Kengla, C. ; Yoo, J. J. ; Atala, A . A 3D bioprinting system to produce human-scale tissue constructs with structural integrity . Nat. Biotechnol. , 2016 , 34 ( 3 ), 312 – 319 .

Moazzam, M. ; Shehzad, A. ; Sultanova, D. ; Mukasheva, F. ; Trifonov, A. ; Berillo, D. ; Akilbekova, D . Macroporous 3D printed structures for regenerative medicine applications . Bioprinting , 2022 , 28 , e00254 .

Luo, Y. X. ; Zhang, T. ; Lin, X . 3D printed hydrogel scaffolds with macro pores and interconnected microchannel networks for tissue engineering vascularization . Chem. Eng. J. , 2022 , 430 , 132926 .

Guan, J. ; Yuan, F. Z. ; Mao, Z. M. ; Zhu, H. L. ; Lin, L. ; Chen, H. H. ; Yu, J. K . Fabrication of 3D-printed interpenetrating hydrogel scaffolds for promoting chondrogenic differentiation . Polymers , 2021 , 13 ( 13 ), 2146 .

Wang, L. ; Deng, F. ; Wang, W. W. ; Li, A. F. ; Lu, C. L. ; Chen, H. ; Wu, G. ; Nan, K. H. ; Li, L. L . Construction of injectable self-healing macroporous hydrogels via a template-free method for tissue engineering and drug delivery . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2018 , 10 ( 43 ), 36721 – 36732 .

Im, P. ; Kim, J . On-demand macroscale delivery system based on a macroporous cryogel with a high drug loading capacity for enhanced cancer therapy . ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. , 2018 , 4 ( 10 ), 3498 – 3505 .

Zhong, Y. Y. ; Zhang, L. ; Sun, S. A. ; Zhou, Z. H. ; Ma, Y. S. ; Hong, H. ; Yang, D. Z . Sequential drug delivery by injectable macroporous hydrogels for combined photodynamic-chemotherapy . J. Nanobiotechnol. , 2021 , 19 ( 1 ), 333 .

Lee, S. S. ; Santschi, M. ; Ferguson, S. J . A biomimetic macroporous hybrid scaffold with sustained drug delivery for enhanced bone regeneration . Biomacromolecules , 2021 , 22 ( 6 ), 2460 – 2471 .

Bardonnet, P. L. ; Faivre, V. ; Pugh, W. J. ; Piffaretti, J. C. ; Falson, F . Gastroretentive dosage forms: overview and special case of Helicobacter pylori . J. Control. Release , 2006 , 111 ( 1-2 ), 1 – 18 .

Yin, L. C. ; Ding, J. Y. ; Fei, L. K. ; He, M. ; Cui, F. Y. ; Tang, C. ; Yin, C. H . Beneficial properties for insulin absorption using superporous hydrogel containing interpenetrating polymer network as oral delivery vehicles . Int. J. Pharm. , 2008 , 350 ( 1-2 ), 220 – 229 .

Bencherif, S. A. ; Warren Sands, R. ; Ali, O. A. ; Li, W. A. ; Lewin, S. A. ; Braschler, T. M. ; Shih, T. Y. ; Verbeke, C. S. ; Bhatta, D. ; Dranoff, G. ; Mooney, D. J . Injectable cryogel-based whole-cell cancer vaccines . Nat. Commun. , 2015 , 6 , 7556 .

Oliverio, R. ; Patenaude, V. ; Liberelle, B. ; Virgilio, N. ; Banquy, X. ; De Crescenzo, G . Macroporous dextran hydrogels for controlled growth factor capture and delivery using coiled-coil interactions . Acta Biomater. , 2022 , 153 , 190 – 203 .

Abune, L. ; Zhao, N. ; Lai, J. P. ; Peterson, B. ; Szczesny, S. ; Wang, Y . Macroporous hydrogels for stable sequestration and sustained release of vascular endothelial growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor using nucleic acid aptamers . ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. , 2019 , 5 ( 5 ), 2382 – 2390 .

Duan, G. G. ; Bagheri, A. R. ; Jiang, S. H. ; Golenser, J. ; Agarwal, S. ; Greiner, A . Exploration of macroporous polymeric sponges as drug carriers . Biomacromolecules , 2017 , 18 ( 10 ), 3215 – 3221 .

Shin, B. Y. ; Cha, B. G. ; Jeong, J. H. ; Kim, J . Injectable macroporous ferrogel microbeads with a high structural stability for magnetically actuated drug delivery . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2017 , 9 ( 37 ), 31372 – 31380 .

Fan, C. J. ; Wang, D. A . Macroporous hydrogel scaffolds for three-dimensional cell culture and tissue engineering . Tissue Eng. Part B Rev. , 2017 , 23 ( 5 ), 451 – 461 .

Yang, X. F. ; Yang, B. G. ; Deng, Y. R. ; Xie, X. ; Qi, Y. W. ; Yan, G. Q. ; Peng, X. ; Zhao, P. C. ; Bian, L. M . Coacervation-mediated cytocompatible formation of supramolecular hydrogels with self-evolving macropores for 3D multicellular spheroid culture . Adv. Mater. , 2023 , 35 ( 24 ), 2300636 .

Thakar, H. ; Sebastian, S. M. ; Mandal, S. ; Pople, A. ; Agarwal, G. ; Srivastava, A . Biomolecule-conjugated macroporous hydrogels for biomedical applications . ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. , 2019 , 5 ( 12 ), 6320 – 6341 .

Qazi, T. H. ; Mooney, D. J. ; Duda, G. N. ; Geissler, S . Biomaterials that promote cell-cell interactions enhance the paracrine function of MSCs . Biomaterials , 2017 , 140 , 103 – 114 .

Fan, C. J. ; Ling, Y. ; Deng, W. S. ; Xue, J. Q. ; Sun, P. ; Wang, D. A . A novel cell encapsulatable cryogel (CECG) with macro-porous structures and high permeability: a three-dimensional cell culture scaffold for enhanced cell adhesion and proliferation . Biomed. Mater. , 2019 , 14 ( 5 ), 055006 .

Lee, S. H. ; Lee, J. ; Kang, N. U. ; Cho, Y. S. ; Heo, S. C. ; Park, Y. ; Cho, Y. S . PCL scaffold with well-defined hierarchical pores effectively controls cell migration and alignment of human mesenchymal stem cells . Sci. Rep. , 2025 , 15 ( 1 ), 11542 .

Yin, S. ; Wu, H. P. ; Huang, Y. Y. ; Lu, C. J. ; Cui, J. ; Li, Y. ; Xue, B. ; Wu, J. H. ; Jiang, C. P. ; Gu, X. S. ; Wang, W. ; Cao, Y . Structurally and mechanically tuned macroporous hydrogels for scalable mesenchymal stem cell-extracellular matrix spheroid production . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 2024 , 121 ( 28 ), e2404210121 .

Zauchner, D. ; Müller, M. Z. ; Horrer, M. ; Bissig, L. ; Zhao, F. H. ; Fisch, P. ; Lee, S. S. ; Zenobi-Wong, M. ; Müller, R. ; Qin, X. H . Synthetic biodegradable microporous hydrogel s for in vitro 3D culture of functional human bone cell networks . Nat. Commun. , 2024 , 15 ( 1 ), 5027 .

Xie, X. ; Li, T. J. ; Ma, L. J. ; Wu, J. H. ; Qi, Y. J. ; Yang, B. G. ; Li, Z. ; Yang, Z. N. ; Zhang, K. Y. ; Chu, Z. Q. ; Ngai, T. ; Xia, J. ; Wang, Y. ; Zhao, P. C. ; Bian, L. M . A designer minimalistic model parallels the phase-separation-mediated assembly and biophysical cues of extracellular matrix . Nat. Chem. , 2025 , 17 ( 8 ), 1216 – 1226 .

Ma, Y. ; Wang, X. H. ; Su, T. ; Lu, F. ; Chang, Q. ; Gao, J. H . Recent advances in macroporous hydrogels for cell behavior and tissue engineering . Gels , 2022 , 8 ( 10 ), 606 .

Li, Y. L. ; Xiao, Y. ; Liu, C. S . The horizon of materiobiology: a perspective on material-guided cell behaviors and tissue engineering . Chem. Rev. , 2017 , 117 ( 5 ), 4376 – 4421 .

Wei, C. ; Tang, P. F. ; Tang, Y. H. ; Liu, L. B. ; Lu, X. ; Yang, K. ; Wang, Q. Y. ; Feng, W. ; Shubhra, Q. T. H. ; Wang, Z. M. ; Zhang, H. P . Sponge-like macroporous hydrogel with antibacterial and ROS scavenging capabilities for diabetic wound regeneration . Adv. Healthc. Mater. , 2022 , 11 ( 20 ), e2200717 .

Ford, M. C. ; Bertram, J. P. ; Hynes, S. R. ; Michaud, M. ; Li, Q. ; Young, M. ; Segal, S. S. ; Madri, J. A. ; Lavik, E. B . A macroporous hydrogel for the coculture of neural progenitor and endothelial cells to form functional vascular networks in vivo . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 2006 , 103 ( 8 ), 2512 – 2517 .

Cui, Z. K. ; Kim, S. ; Baljon, J. J. ; Wu, B. M. ; Aghaloo, T. ; Lee, M . Microporous methacrylated glycol chitosan-montmorillonite nanocomposite hydrogel for bone tissue engineering . Nat. Commun. , 2019 , 10 , 3523 .

Jiang, S. M. ; Lyu, C. ; Zhao, P. ; Li, W. J. ; Kong, W. Y. ; Huang, C. Y. ; Genin, G. M. ; Du, Y. N . Cryoprotectant enables structural control of porous scaffolds for exploration of cellular mechano-responsiveness in 3D . Nat. Commun. , 2019 , 10 ( 1 ), 3491 .

Xue, B. ; Xu, Z. Y. ; Li, L. ; Guo, K. Q. ; Mi, J. ; Wu, H. P. ; Li, Y. R. ; Xie, C. M. ; Jin, J. ; Xu, J. ; Jiang, C. P. ; Gu, X. S. ; Qin, M. ; Jiang, Q. ; Cao, Y. ; Wang, W . Hydrogels with programmed spatiotemporal mechanical cues for stem cell-assisted bone regeneration . Nat. Commun. , 2025 , 16 ( 1 ), 3633 .

Zhao, J. Y. ; Hu, Y. ; Li, H. ; Liu, C. K. ; Nie, Z. Q. ; Chen, Z. K. ; Ling, Q. J. ; Li, Z. ; Song, B. ; Zhang, K. Y. ; Bian, L. M . Liquid-liquid phase separation-mediated cellular-scale compartmentalization of hydrogel covalent cross-linking promotes microtubule-based mechanosensing . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2025 , 147 ( 17 ), 14336 – 14347 .